SQL Server Copilot AI

 Here are some of the latest tips and advanced concepts for Microsoft SQL Server (MS SQL) in 2024:

1. SQL Server Copilot AI

Microsoft has introduced Copilot AI in SQL Server Management Studio (SSMS), which can assist with generating, optimizing, and explaining SQL queries. This feature is aimed at enhancing productivity for database administrators and developers by leveraging AI capabilities within SSMS【10】【11】.

2. Window Functions

Window functions like ROW_NUMBER, RANK, and DENSE_RANK are powerful for analyzing data over partitions. They are especially useful for tasks like ranking rows within groups and calculating running totals【12】.

3. Common Table Expressions (CTEs)

CTEs simplify complex queries by allowing you to break them into manageable parts. They are also critical for implementing recursive queries, such as navigating hierarchical data like organizational charts or category trees【12】.

4. Performance Tuning

Recent insights recommend focusing on techniques like indexing strategies, query execution plan analysis, and optimizing MERGE versus INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE operations for specific scenarios to improve performance【10】【12】.

5. Temporary Tables and User-Defined Functions (UDFs)

Temporary tables help with intermediate data storage during sessions, while UDFs provide reusable custom logic. These tools can enhance the modularity and efficiency of your SQL code【12】.

6. String and Date Manipulation

Functions like CONCAT, SUBSTRING, and DATEDIFF are valuable for text and date handling, supporting data preprocessing tasks and simplifying reporting operations【12】.

7. Data Import and Export

Modern tools support importing non-traditional data formats, like PDFs, directly into SQL Server databases. These capabilities expand integration options and streamline workflows【10】.

For further exploration, visit resources like MSSQLTips or the Airbyte Advanced SQL Guide for hands-on examples and tutorials.

Top 10 SQL Skills You Need to Succeed in 2024

 

Top 10 SQL Skills You Need to Succeed in 2024

To help you navigate the world of SQL and become a data-driven professional, we've identified the top 10 skills you need to master:

1. SELECT
2. Aggregate functions
3. GROUP BY
4. Data Filtering and Sorting Techniques
5. JOIN Data
6. Subqueries
7. CTEs
8. WINDOW FUNCTIONS
9. Differences between dialects
10. Working locally and in the cloud

By understanding these ten SQL skills, you'll be well-equipped to excel in the data-driven job market of 2024 and beyond. In the following sections, we'll take a deeper look at each of these key skills, providing practical examples and insights to help you develop a robust SQL skillset. Whether you're new to the field or looking to enhance your existing data expertise, this guide will equip you with the knowledge and techniques needed to thrive in the evolving world of data analytics.

1. SELECT

The SELECT statement in SQL allows you to retrieve data from a database. One key decision when using SELECT is whether to get all columns using the wildcard (*) or only specific ones. This choice impacts both database performance and data security.

Selecting All Columns:

• Useful for initial data exploration
• Provides a broad view of the data
• May slow down queries with large datasets

Selecting Specific Columns:

• Improves query performance
• Retrieves only relevant data
• Helps protect sensitive information

In most professional scenarios, selecting specific columns is best practice because it optimizes system resources and aligns with data privacy principles. However, there are situations where selecting all columns is appropriate, such as when conducting preliminary analyses.

Using SELECT also involves learning how to choose the right columns for different queries, and understanding the performance implications of each approach. Dataquest's Introduction to SQL and Databases course discusses into these topics, providing hands-on practice to build your proficiency. As AI advances, core SQL skills like effective SELECT statements remain essential for data professionals.

2. Aggregate Functions

Being fluent in SQL's aggregate functions is incredibly important for efficiently analyzing and summarizing large datasets. These functions are:

• SUM: Calculates the total of numerical values in a column
• AVG: Determines the average (mean) of numerical values
• MIN and MAX: Identify the smallest and largest values, respectively
• COUNT: Tallies the number of rows meeting a specific criteria

Aggregate functions have broad applications across industries. For example, a sales manager might use SUM to calculate total revenue, AVG to determine average order size, and COUNT to track daily transactions. Proficiency in these functions enhances analytical capabilities and improves overall query performance.

While learning syntax and use cases can be challenging initially, knowing how to use these functions to answer business questions is important for anyone looking to learn SQL. Dataquest's Summarizing Data in SQL course provides real-world applications to help you understand how these functions can apply to the real world.

3. GROUP BY

The GROUP BY clause is a fundamental SQL skill for organizing and analyzing data. It groups rows with the same values in specified columns, enabling summary reports like:

• Totaling daily sales by date
• Counting orders per customer
• Segmenting data by product category

Correctly using the GROUP BY clause requires practice, especially when combining it with other SQL functions like JOINs or filtering data. Start with basic queries before progressing to more complex analyses using multiple grouping columns. Investing time to thoroughly understand this concept opens doors for you to extract valuable insights from raw data.

4. Data Filtering and Sorting Techniques

To efficiently analyze data and advance your career, you must understand key SQL filtering and sorting techniques:

• WHERE: Filters records based on conditions
• HAVING: Filters aggregated records from GROUP BY
• ORDER BY: Sorts results ascending or descending
• LIKE: Matches a specified pattern
• IN: Checks against a list of values
• BETWEEN: Selects values within a range
• DISTINCT: Returns unique values
• LIMIT: Restricts the number of returned rows

Practical Applications and Benefits

Data professionals use these techniques to extract insights from large datasets. For example, marketers apply WHERE to target corporate customers and ORDER BY to identify top-performing customers. Mastering these skills helps you quickly locate key information, making you invaluable in data analysis and business intelligence roles.

Overcoming Challenges

One of the most common hurdles people have with SQL filtering is knowing when to use HAVING vs. WHERE because their purpose seems similar on the surface. To help remember the difference, think of WHERE as filtering individual records, while HAVING filters aggregated groups. Hands-on practice with sample datasets is invaluable for solidifying this distinction.

5. JOIN Data

SQL JOIN clauses combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column. There are several different types of JOIN in SQL, and knowing when and how to correctly utilize them is where the true power of working with SQL with relational databases starts to shine.

INNER JOINs return records with matching values in both tables, while LEFT and RIGHT JOINs include all records from one table and only matching records from the other. FULL JOINs combine the results of LEFT and RIGHT JOINs, and CROSS JOINs generate the Cartesian product of the tables involved. Each type has specific use cases, such as ensuring data completeness or generating specific combinations.

Learning JOINs for Career Growth

Proficiency in JOIN operations boosts your job prospects in data-driven industries because it allows you to work effectively with complex databases, optimize query performance, and perform advanced analyses. JOINs are often challenging for students starting out with SQL because the different JOIN types can seem confusing. It's helpful to keep an example of each type handy so you can reference them when you need to determine the best type to use. To help with this, Dataquest's Combining Tables in SQL course provides hands-on practice with real-world applications for all the different JOIN types.

6. Subqueries

Subqueries are valuable for writing flexible SQL queries and retrieving complex data in a single query. They enable advanced data manipulation, making them a valuable skill for data-focused careers.

Subqueries, also known as nested queries, are SQL queries placed within another query. They let you perform multi-step data operations that would otherwise require multiple queries. Subqueries are commonly used to:

• Identify records that do not match across tables
• Aggregate data before applying filter conditions
• Create temporary result sets for further analysis

Proficiency in subqueries can advance your career by demonstrating the ability to efficiently work with complex datasets. Even as AI transforms SQL applications, fundamental skills like subqueries will remain important. Focusing your learning on concepts core to querying data will keep your knowledge relevant even as technology evolves.

7. Common Table Expressions (CTEs)

Common Table Expressions (CTEs) are named temporary result sets within an SQL statement. They can be referenced multiple times in a query, making them useful for breaking down complex queries into more manageable parts. By using CTEs, you can improve query structure and performance while making your SQL code more readable.

CTEs have many practical applications. For instance, a data analyst could use a CTE to calculate a running total of sales for each product category before joining that data with inventory information. This approach is often clearer and more efficient than writing a complex subquery.

The key benefits of using CTEs include:

• Improved query organization and readability
• Ability to reference a subquery multiple times
• Potential performance improvements through optimization

However, CTEs can be challenging when you're first learning SQL. Some common hurdles include:

• Understanding the differences between CTEs and subqueries
• Determining when a CTE is the best solution
• Debugging errors in complex CTE structures

If you're looking to build your CTE skills, Dataquest's interactive SQL Subqueries course is a great resource. With hands-on practice and real-world applications, you'll gain the knowledge you need to use CTEs effectively in your SQL queries.

8. Window Functions

Window functions are a powerful SQL tool for advanced data analysis. They allow you to perform calculations across a set of rows related to the current row, without the need for complex joins or subqueries. This makes them very efficient for tasks like calculating running totals, ranking data, or comparing values between rows.

Window functions are especially useful for scenarios that require comparing rows within a result set, such as analyzing financial data over time. Unlike aggregate functions that combine multiple rows into a single result, window functions maintain each row's identity, allowing for more detailed analysis. Some common applications include:

• Calculating cumulative sums or moving averages
• Ranking or row numbering within groups
• Comparing values to preceding or following rows

To use window functions effectively, start by understanding basic functions like ROW_NUMBER(), RANK(), and LEAD(). Then practice applying them to real datasets to see their practical benefits. Keep your syntax straightforward by clearly defining the OVER clause for optimal performance. Dataquest's Window Functions in SQL course provides hands-on training to build your skills. As data analysis grows more complex, proficiency with window functions will be an asset for any data professional.

9. Differences Between SQL Dialects

SQL dialects are variations of the SQL language adapted by different database systems, each affecting compatibility and ease of use. Learning the differences between SQL dialects (or flavors) like MySQL, PostgreSQL, and SQLite is valuable for data professionals. Understanding the unique features of each dialect can optimize code performance and ensure seamless integration across platforms.

Knowledge of multiple SQL dialects makes professionals versatile and employable across various roles. This skill set is highly valued and often associated with higher salaries. Professionals who can navigate diverse database environments are assets to any data-driven organization.

While it's not mandatory to be 100% fluent in every SQL flavor, having a basic understanding of the syntax differences can be extremely helpful for anyone looking for a job at a place that uses a different flavor than what you're used to. We recommend familiarizing yourself with at least one SQL dialect beyond SQLite, which is a common first flavor for people to learn.

10. Working Locally and in the Cloud

Learning SQL for both local and cloud environments is important for advancing data careers today. As businesses increasingly adopt cloud platforms like AWS, Google Cloud, and Azure for data storage and processing, professionals need to be skilled in working with databases across these systems. This allows you to:

• Scale data processing efficiently
• Automate data management tasks
• Collaborate effectively on analytics projects

Building these skills requires hands-on practice with tasks, which can be challenging because many cloud-based servers have costs associated with them. To overcome this, you can:

1. Use Free Tiers and Trials: Many cloud providers offer free tiers or trial periods that allow users to access cloud resources at no cost for a limited time. Learners can leverage these free options to gain practical experience with cloud databases and data processing without incurring immediate costs. Examples include AWS Free Tier, Google Cloud Free Tier, and Azure Free Account.
2. Use Local Database Environments: In addition to cloud-based databases, learners can set up local database environments on their own computers using tools like PostgreSQL or MySQL. This allows you to practice SQL skills without incurring cloud-based costs, while still gaining experience with database management.

Staying current with SQL and cloud computing developments positions you for career growth in data analytics and database management.

Common Misconceptions and Challenges in SQL

Learning SQL is a foundational skill for excelling in data science or analytics, but it comes with challenges. Misconceptions often stem from experience in other domains, causing confusion about SQL's unique syntax and operations. For instance, those used to procedural programming in languages like Python or R may find it difficult to adapt to SQL's declarative nature, resulting in inefficient queries.

Key Areas of Misunderstanding

• Assumptions Based on Prior Coursework: Learners may assume that SQL works the same way as other programming languages, such as expecting to use loops or conditional statements to retrieve data, when SQL is actually a declarative language focused on describing the desired outcome rather than the step-by-step process.
• Overgeneralization Errors: Applying the concept of "joining tables" from relational database theory to SQL without understanding the specific syntax and semantics of SQL's JOIN clause can lead to inefficient queries that don't properly handle relationships between tables.
• Confusion Around SQL-Specific Language: Confusing the difference between SQL keywords like "WHERE" and "HAVING", or confusing the use of aggregate functions like "SUM" and "COUNT", can result in queries that don't produce the intended results.
• Flawed Mental Models of SQL Data Processing: Thinking of SQL as simply a way to filter and extract data from a database, without understanding the underlying relational model and how SQL operations like grouping and sorting work, can lead to suboptimal query performance and design.

These issues lead to common mistakes like poorly designed joins that ignore relational database principles, emphasizing the importance of structured SQL learning resources*.

To effectively overcome these challenges, you should use resources that combine theory and hands-on practice. Being aware of potential misconceptions allows you to develop more effective data querying approaches.

Getting Started with SQL

SQL skills are essential for working with data. Focusing on foundational concepts is the key to success when you start learning SQL. Our Complete Guide to SQL is a great place for you to learn and start using:

• SELECT statements to retrieve data
• Aggregate functions like SUM and AVG to summarize data
• JOINs and subqueries to combine data from multiple tables

Once you grasp the basics, apply your knowledge through hands-on projects. Analyzing real datasets will reinforce your understanding and prepare you for practical data tasks.

You should also take some time choosing the right learning platform for your needs and learning style. Look for a comprehensive curriculum that covers fundamental to advanced topics and includes projects. Dataquest's SQL Fundamentals skill path is an excellent resource, teaching essential skills for reading and manipulating data.

After learning the core concepts, dive into projects immediately. Analyzing e-commerce sales data or social media sentiment will test your skills on real-world challenges. Additionally, building a project portfolio will solidify your knowledge and boost your confidence.

Stay current with the latest in SQL by engaging with online communities. Platforms like StackOverflow and Linkedin groups connect you with professionals to discuss trends, solve problems, and continue learning.

In 2024 and beyond, SQL remains a vital skill, even as AI transforms the data landscape. Combining a strong foundation with practical experience and continuous learning will set you up for success in data-focused careers.

Why Choose Dataquest for Learning Data Reading with SQL

Project-Based Learning

Dataquest's SQL courses stand out for their unique project-based curriculum. By working hands-on with real-world datasets, you gain practical experience with data manipulation and analysis. Projects like analyzing e-commerce sales or social media sentiment prepare you for the challenges of today's data-centric careers.

Comprehensive Skill-Building

Our structured learning paths guide you from SQL basics to advanced techniques. Skill paths like SQL Fundamentals provide a comprehensive introduction to databases, querying, and beyond. You systematically build essential skills through interactive lessons and practice problems. Additionally, Dataquest focuses on teaching you the SQL skills that matter most in the real world. Lessons incorporate scenarios you'll encounter on the job, so you're ready to apply your knowledge from day one.

Community Support

When you learn with Dataquest, you're part of a community. Connect with peers and professionals on our online platform to get help, share knowledge, and grow your network. Stay up-to-date with the latest SQL trends and get advice from those succeeding in the field.

As AI transforms data science, SQL skills are more important than ever. A strong foundation in querying and data manipulation remains highly valuable, even as technologies change. With Dataquest, you'll gain the practical SQL skills to stay competitive and advance your data career in 2024 and beyond.

Conclusion

SQL skills are critical for professional growth in 2024. The ability to manipulate, analyze and draw insights from data using SQL provides a major advantage in many industries. Mastering skills like querying, data manipulation, joins, CTEs, and window functions can significantly advance your career.

To start learning SQL effectively:

1. Begin with fundamentals like creating tables and writing basic queries
2. Progress to advanced topics like subqueries through hands-on practice
3. Use structured learning materials like Dataquest's SQL Fundamentals skill path

It's also crucial to stay current with SQL and data analytics trends, especially as AI transforms the field. Continuously developing your SQL skills prepares you for both today's roles and future opportunities. Dataquest offers a blend of in-depth curriculum and peer community to support you in building job-ready SQL skills for 2024 and beyond.

SQL Constraints

 Constraints in SQL are essential rules applied to table columns to ensure data integrity, accuracy, and reliability within a database. These rules dictate the type of data that can be stored in each column, enhancing data consistency and security. The primary types of constraints include:

• NOT NULL: Ensures a column cannot store a null value, maintaining the necessity for explicit data in each row.
• UNIQUE: Demands all values in a column to be distinct, preventing duplicates and ensuring data uniqueness.
• PRIMARY KEY: Identifies each row in a table uniquely, combining the NOT NULL and UNIQUE constraints for optimal data retrieval and integrity.
• FOREIGN KEY: Establishes a relationship between columns in different tables, ensuring data consistency through referential integrity.
• CHECK: Validates that all values in a column meet a specified condition, enforcing data validity and restrictions.
• DEFAULT: Assigns a default value to a column if no other value is specified, simplifying data entry and ensuring consistency.

How to specify constraints

Specifying constraints in SQL is a fundamental process for enforcing rules on data within a table to maintain data integrity, accuracy, and consistency. SQL constraints can be defined both during the creation of a table with the CREATE TABLE statement and after the table has been created using the ALTER TABLE statement.

Syntax

Constraints in SQL can be imposed at two different times namely - at the time of creation and after creation. Let's see the syntax of constraints one by one.

1. Constraint imposed at the time of table creation using CREATE TABLE command:

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name
(
cloumn_name date_type(size) constraint_name,
.....
)

Example:

We are imposing a UNIQUE constraint on the sample-number column of the sample table.

CREATE TABLE sample
(
sample-number int UNIQUE,
.....
)

2. Constraint imposed after the time of table creation using ALTER TABLE command:

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name
(
MODIFY cloumn_name date_type(size) constraint_name,
.....
)

Example:

We are imposing a UNIQUE SQL constraints on the sample-number column of the sample table. We have to use MODIFY because we add a constraint after the creation of the table.

ALTER TABLE sample
(
MODIFY sample-number int UNIQUE;
)

Types of Constraints in SQL

Constraints in SQL can be applied either on the table or a specific column. The constraints applied on the table are called Table level constraints on the other hand, the constraints applied on columns are called Column level constraints. Some of the most commonly used constraints are discussed below:

1. NOT NULL Constraint

• Enforces that a column cannot contain NULL values.
• Essential for ensuring data completeness in crucial fields.

Syntax

• During table creation:

  CREATE TABLE table_name (
      column_name data_type NOT NULL
  );
  

• Adding to an existing column:

  ALTER TABLE table_name
  MODIFY column_name data_type NOT NULL;
  

Examples

• Create table with NOT NULL:

  CREATE TABLE Person (
      ID int NOT NULL,
      Name varchar(255) NOT NULL
  );
  

  Ensures ID and Name in Person must always have a value.

• Add NOT NULL to existing column:

  ALTER TABLE Person
  MODIFY ID int NOT NULL;
  

  Makes ID in Person mandatory for all future records.

2. UNIQUE Constraint

• Enforces uniqueness across table rows, permitting NULL values.
• Ideal for uniquely identifying records without serving as a primary key.
• Applies to data like email IDs and employee numbers, ensuring no duplicates.

Syntax

• When creating a table:

  CREATE TABLE table_name (
      column_name data_type UNIQUE,
      ...
  );
  

• Adding to an existing table:

  ALTER TABLE table_name
  ADD UNIQUE (column_name);
  

Examples

• Creating a table with uniqueness:

  CREATE TABLE Person (
      ID int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
      Name varchar(255) NOT NULL
  );
  

  Creates Person table ensuring unique ID for every individual.

• Ensuring uniqueness for an existing column:

  ALTER TABLE Person
  MODIFY ID int UNIQUE;
  

  Modifies Person to enforce unique ID values.

3. PRIMARY KEY Constraint

• Ensures uniqueness and non-nullability across all rows in a column or set of columns.
• Crucial for data identification and relational database integrity.
• Combines UNIQUE and NOT NULL constraints implicitly.

Syntax

• During table creation:

  CREATE TABLE table_name (
      column_name data_type PRIMARY KEY,
      ...
  );
  

• Adding to an existing table:

  ALTER TABLE table_name
  ADD PRIMARY KEY (column_name);
  

Examples

• Creating a table with PRIMARY KEY:

  CREATE TABLE Person (
      ID int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
      Name varchar(255) NOT NULL,
      PRIMARY KEY (ID)
  );
  

  Sets ID as the primary key in Person table, ensuring unique, non-null identifiers.

• Adding PRIMARY KEY with ALTER TABLE:

  ALTER TABLE Person
  ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID);
  

  Designates ID as primary key in Person table, securing uniqueness and data presence.

4. FOREIGN KEY Constraint

• Establishes a relationship between two tables.
• Links a column in one table to a primary key in another.
• Prevents orphan records in the child table.

Syntax

• During table creation:

  CREATE TABLE child_table (
      column1 data_type,
      ...
      FOREIGN KEY (column1) REFERENCES parent_table(parent_column)
  );
  

• Adding to an existing table:

  ALTER TABLE child_table
  ADD FOREIGN KEY (column1) REFERENCES parent_table(parent_column);
  

Examples

• Creating a table with a FOREIGN KEY:

  CREATE TABLE Order (
      O_ID int NOT NULL,
      P_ID int,
      PRIMARY KEY (O_ID),
      FOREIGN KEY (P_ID) REFERENCES Person(P_ID)
  );
  

  Creates Order table, linking P_ID to Person table.

• Adding a FOREIGN KEY with ALTER TABLE:

  ALTER TABLE Order
  ADD FOREIGN KEY (P_ID) REFERENCES Person(P_ID);
  

  Adds foreign key to Order table, ensuring data integrity.

5. CHECK Constraint

• Ensures column data meets a specific condition.
• Used for validating data based on a rule.

Syntax

• When creating a table:

  CREATE TABLE table_name (
      column_name data_type,
      ...
      CHECK (condition)
  );
  

• Adding to an existing table:

  ALTER TABLE table_name
  ADD CHECK (condition);
  

Examples

• Creating a table with a CHECK constraint:

  CREATE TABLE Person (
      ID int NOT NULL,
      Name varchar(255) NOT NULL,
      Age int,
      CHECK (Age >= 60)
  );
  

  This table ensures persons are at least 60 years old.

• Adding a CHECK constraint using ALTER TABLE:

  ALTER TABLE Person
  ADD CHECK (Age > 60);
  

  Modifies the Person table to enforce that Age must be over 60.

6. DEFAULT Constraint

• Automatically assigns a specified default value to a column when no other value is provided.

Syntax

• To define a DEFAULT constraint during table creation:

  CREATE TABLE table_name (
      column_name data_type DEFAULT default_value,
      ...
  );
  

• To add or change a DEFAULT constraint for an existing column:

  ALTER TABLE table_name
  ALTER COLUMN column_name SET DEFAULT default_value;
  

Examples

• Creating a table with a DEFAULT constraint:

  CREATE TABLE Person(
      ID int NOT NULL,
      Name varchar(255) NOT NULL,
      Country varchar(255) DEFAULT 'India'
  );
  

  This sets 'India' as the default value for the Country column in the Person table when no specific country is provided.

• Adding a DEFAULT constraint using ALTER TABLE:

  ALTER TABLE Person
  ALTER Country SET DEFAULT 'India';
  

  This alters the existing Person table, setting 'India' as the default country for the Country column if no value is provided.

7. CREATE INDEX Constraint

• Accelerates data retrieval by creating indexes on table columns, supporting both unique and non-unique values.

Syntax

• To create an index on a table column:

  CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name);
  

Examples

• Creating an index on the ID column of a Person table:

  CREATE INDEX P_Index ON Person (ID);
  

  This command creates an index named P_Index on the ID column of the Person table, optimizing query performance by enabling faster data access.

Need for SQL Constraints

Data and its security and maintenance are a great concern for database administrators. They use different types of constraints to maintain database consistency. Constraints help us to achieve:

• SQL constraints help the database administrator to maintain the accuracy and reliability of the data in the table. For example, the administrator can use NOT NULL constraint on a column that is not supposed to contain a null value.
• SQL constraints help to maintain the integrity of the data during the operations performed on the table. For example, the administrator can use PRIMARY KEY constraint on a column so that the user cannot enter a value that is there already in the database.
• Constraints also help to enforce limits on the input so that the operation does not lead to abortion.

For example, the administrator can use a CHECK constraint (like a data type) on a column so that the user can only input a specified type of data. Otherwise, the database may get damaged.

Conclusion

• Constraints in SQL ensure data integrity, accuracy, and reliability by imposing specific rules on database tables.
• They are essential for database administration, allowing for the enforcement of unique values, non-null requirements, and referential integrity.
• Constraints in SQL can be applied both during and after table creation, offering flexibility in database design and management.
• Key SQL constraints include NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK, DEFAULT, and CREATE INDEX, each serving a distinct purpose in data validation and optimization.